Life & Career

• Born 1685, Eisenach, Germany; died 1750, Leipzig — widely regarded as one of the most important figures in Western music history
• Held prestigious positions in German courts and churches: Arnstadt, Mühlhausen, Weimar, Köthen, Leipzig
• His influence beyond these circles was limited during his lifetime — significance of his work more widely recognised only after his death
• Fathered 20 children; four became influential composers — most notably Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Johann Christian Bach
• Profoundly shaped by his Lutheran faith — many sacred compositions
• His music was championed after his death by Mendelssohn (1829 revival of the St Matthew Passion)

Major Compositions

• Brandenburg Concertos (6 orchestral concertos)
• Mass in B minor, St Matthew Passion, St John Passion
• Keyboard: The Well-Tempered Clavier (48 preludes and fugues), The Art of Fugue, Goldberg Variations, English Suites, French Suites, Partitas, Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue, Italian Concerto
• Organ: Toccata and Fugue in D minor, chorale preludes
• Over 1,000 compositions spanning nearly all major genres of his time except opera

Influences

• German: Buxtehude (organ music), Froberger (keyboard suites)
• Italian: Vivaldi (concerto style), Corelli
• French: Lully, Marais (ornamental style)

About the Fantasia BWV 906

• Paired with a fugue in the same key (C minor) — however the fugue was never completed
• A fantasia is a musical composition rooted in improvisation — free and spontaneous style, following established forms loosely if at all. Term in use since the 16th century.
• Notable as an example of Bach experimenting with the Empfindsamer Stil (expressive style) — a style more strongly associated with the works of his sons, anticipating Classical expressiveness
• Sometimes described as being in sonata form (Schulenberg), but rounded binary is a more suitable label — there is no 'second subject' to recapitulate in bars 35–42

Main Features

• Key: C minor; simple quadruple time
• Texture: two voices — relationship alternates between hierarchical (homophonic) and more equal (polyphonic)
• Late Baroque style: extensive ornamentation and chromatic melodic decoration; polyphonic textures; continuous driving rhythm; sequence used extensively (both melodic and harmonic)

Structure — Rounded Binary Form

• Section A (bars 1–17), C minor: Bars 1–4: 1st phrase of main theme — melody in RH defined by sequence, ornaments on beat 4 are bridging material (not part of melody proper), LH outlined chords with countermelodic gestures, imperfect cadence. Bars 5–8: 2nd phrase — same melodic materials partly inverted, melody transfers to LH (bars 5–7) then back to RH (bar 8), texture becomes polyphonic, imperfect cadence. Bars 9–14¹: secondary theme — modulating sequence tonicises F minor (subdominant) before settling on E♭ major (relative major), perfect cadence in bar 12 then repeated bars 13³–14¹; sequence defines the passage. Bars 14–17: closing passage in G minor (dominant) — new thematic material, much chromaticism, sequence, markedly polyphonic texture; both first- and second-time bars conclude with perfect cadences in G minor.
• Section B — part b (bars 18–29³): Contrasting section. Bars 18–19 restate bars 1–2 modified to stay in the same key. Bars 20–21 developmental (based on opening theme); bars 22–24 (based on bars 14–15) — highly chromatic, polyphonic sequence, tonicising various keys rapidly before settling in F minor (imperfect cadence, bar 25). Bars 26–29³: essentially a repeat of bars 9–12³ (secondary theme) transposed to A♭ major (relative of the subdominant), with hands swapped. Bars 29⁴–34: transitional passagework, moving from A♭ major back to tonic; bars 32–33 more chromatic, concluding on a G major triad (imperfect cadence).
• Section B — part a' (bars 35–42), C minor: Bars 35–37¹ repeat bars 1–3¹ exactly; varies from bar 37², concluding with an interrupted cadence (beats 2–3 of bar 38) eliding into the final passage. Bars 38³–42: closing passage entirely on new thematic material — elaborate sequence with much chromaticism, briefly obscuring the tonal centre, then tonic key re-emerges at bar 40; both first- and second-time bars contain strong perfect cadences.

Notable Harmonic Devices

• Sequence: A defining feature throughout — both melodic and harmonic; used in virtually every section
• Cadential Ic chords: At all important structural cadences (bars 8³, 12², 13⁴, 16², 17², etc.)
• Accented Ic chord: Bar 18³ (and 35³) — a second-inversion triad resolving to V on an off-beat, not at a cadence, so described as 'accented' rather than 'cadential' Ic
• Secondary dominants and secondary leading-note chords: First chords in bars 2 and 3; bar 6 features an extended chord (flattened ninth added)
• Chromatic descent: Main theme's uppermost voice outlines a chromatic descent from tonic to dominant
• Appoggiatura: Bars 5–6 — in each semiquaver triplet group the first note is a dissonant appoggiatura, with remaining two notes ascending through chord notes
• Interrupted cadence: Bars 38 beats 2–3 — creates surprise and leads directly into the closing passage

Baroque Style Characteristics

What instrument was this written for?

Composed likely before 1730 — written for the harpsichord (or clavichord). Harpsichord: strings plucked by a quill/leather plectrum; no dynamic variation from touch alone; no sustaining pedal; compass up to 5 octaves; tone dies away quickly. Clavichord: Bach's favourite keyboard instrument (according to his first biographer Forkel); strings struck by a brass tangent; capable of some dynamic shading; very soft tone, limited to solo performance in small rooms. Both instruments differ fundamentally from the modern piano with its felt hammers, iron frame, 7+ octave range, and sustaining pedal.

Contemporaries of Bach

George Frideric Handel (German/English, 1685–1759), Georg Philipp Telemann (German, 1681–1767), Antonio Vivaldi (Italian, 1678–1741), François Couperin (French, 1668–1733), Domenico Scarlatti (Italian, 1685–1757).

Life & Career

• Franz Joseph Haydn (1732–1809), Austrian composer of the Classical period; one of the most important composers in Western music
• Sometimes called the 'father' of the symphony and the string quartet
• With Mozart and Beethoven, largely defined the late Classical style; influenced both, and briefly taught Beethoven
• Employed for much of his career by the aristocratic Esterházy family — the resources and stability to develop a distinctive voice marked by clarity, inventiveness and wit
• Gained international fame; after leaving the Esterházy court made two successful trips to London, where he composed some of his most famous symphonies
• Style: blend of emotional depth and structural clarity; known for sonata form and innovations in thematic development (often exploring a single theme throughout a movement)

Major Compositions

• Symphonies: over 100, incl. the London symphonies (Nos 93–104)
• Chamber: 68 string quartets and other chamber works
• Vocal: oratorio The Creation, masses, numerous operas
• Concerto: Cello Concerto in C
• Piano: keyboard sonatas composed between the 1760s and 1790s — from the Galant style to the mature Classical idiom (early sonatas shorter and more decorative; later London-period works show greater emotional depth, technical challenge and formal expansiveness)

Influences

• C.P.E. Bach — a flexible and expressive style
• Earlier Viennese Classical composers — foundation for his formal innovations

About Sonata Hob XVI:44 (Sonata No. 44)

• A sonata is a work for one or more instruments; from the Classical period, usually multi-movement works for keyboard alone or another instrument with keyboard accompaniment
• Hob = Hoboken catalogue of Haydn's works; XVI = keyboard sonatas; 44 = the sonata number
• Unpublished until 1788, but likely composed as early as 1771
• Two movements: Moderato (1st, G minor, sonata form) and a minuet (2nd) moving between G minor and its parallel major (G major)

Main Features of Moderato

• Key: G minor; simple quadruple time; homophonic, melody principally in the right hand
• Classical style: sonata form; clear, balanced phrases; simple textures; light and elegant character
• Repeat signs enclose the Exposition, and the Development and Recapitulation together
• Most significant modulation: B♭ major (relative major). Shorter modulations: B♭ minor (parallel minor of the relative major), C minor (subdominant), E♭ major (relative of the subdominant), and distant F minor (subdominant of the subdominant)
• Contrast of moods: first subject sombre and unsettled; second subject playful and jubilant. Tension peaks in the Recapitulation, especially the cadenza-like passage in b.67–71, where the music seems to try to break free of G minor but cannot

Structure — Sonata Form

• Exposition — First subject (b.1–4³), G minor: two similar two-bar phrases; first ends with an imperfect cadence, second with a strong perfect cadence.
• Transition (b.4⁴–12³), G minor → B♭ major → B♭ minor: three segments. B.4⁴–6³ repeat a one-bar unit from the first subject, modulating to B♭ major in b.6. B.6⁴–10³: new material over a dominant pedal, first in B♭ major then B♭ minor, ending with an interrupted cadence in b.10. Final segment: more new material, ending with an imperfect cadence.
• Second subject (b.12⁴–20), B♭ major: core motive in b.12⁴–14, developed by sequence in b.14⁴–17²; new material briefly tonicises F major (the dominant of B♭); strong perfect cadence at the end of b.20.
• Closing thematic group (b.21–31), B♭ major: three parts. (1) b.21–24³: derived from b.4 material, developed by sequence, strong perfect cadence. (2) b.24³–28: melody moves to the left hand (transformed version of the first closing theme), right hand has an inverted dominant pedal; perfect cadence b.28 effectively ends the Exposition. (3) b.29–31: bridging passage over a tonic pedal; first-time bar ends with an imperfect cadence in G minor, second-time bar with an imperfect cadence in C minor.
• Development (b.32–52³): b.32–37 (C minor → G minor → F minor): first two bars of the first subject in C minor, modified theme in G minor then F minor. B.38–43³ (F minor → C minor): material from the transition (b.5–6) via G minor and E♭ major, imperfect cadence in C minor. B.43⁴–46 (C minor → E♭ major): first two bars of the second subject in C minor, ascending flourish in E♭, abrupt pause. B.47–52³ (E♭ major → G minor): first subject in E♭, sequence in C minor, free development tonicising F minor, B♭ and E♭ major; imperfect cadence in the tonic.
• Recapitulation (b.52⁴–80), G minor: first subject restated in the tonic (elaborate chromatic diversion in the 2nd phrase, b.52⁴–58¹); second subject in the tonic with small modifications (b.58²–64); first closing theme in the tonic with a significant diversion from b.67 (b.65–72³); second closing theme transposed to tonic (b.72³–76); repeat bars b.77–80 modelled on b.29–31 (first time to C minor with an imperfect cadence; second time stays in G minor with an emphatic perfect cadence).

Chords & Devices

• German augmented sixths in b.11, 43 and 52; Italian augmented sixth in b.30
• Many imperfect cadences approach V via secondary dominants (or secondary leading-note chords)
• B.55³–56 (Recapitulation): secondary leading-note chords in sequence with a chain of suspensions — destabilising
• Pedal points: dominant (transition), inverted dominant (closing theme), tonic (bridge b.29–31)
• Emphatic perfect cadences in the second subject and closing themes are approached by cadential Ic chords

Classical Style Characteristics

About the Classical Period (c.1750–1820)

A move toward clarity and balance, contrasting with the dense textures and elaborate ornamentation of the Baroque. Homophonic textures, regular phrase structures, clear tonal direction; codification of sonata form, theme and variations and rondo; flourishing of the symphony, string quartet and solo concerto, and the development of the piano sonata. Functional harmony from the Baroque continued, but simpler and more diatonic.

Contemporaries of Haydn

Mozart (Austrian, 1756–1791), Beethoven (German, 1770–1827), Clementi (Italian, 1752–1832), C.P.E. Bach (German, 1714–1788), Cramer (German/English, 1771–1858), Hummel (Austrian, 1778–1837).

Life & Career

• Born 1875, London, to an English mother and a father from Sierra Leone; died 1912, Croydon, aged 37 from pneumonia
• English composer, conductor, and political activist
• Child prodigy on violin; entered the Royal College of Music at age 15
• Faced racism and struggled financially throughout his life, yet achieved significant fame
• Made three tours of the United States — embraced by the African-American community; received by President Theodore Roosevelt at the White House (highly unusual for a man of African descent at the time)
• Aimed to do for Black music what Dvořák did for Bohemian and Grieg for Norwegian folk music

Major Compositions

• Most famous work: cantata trilogy The Song of Hiawatha — massive commercial success, staple of British choral societies
• Violin Concerto in G minor
• Ballade in A minor
• 24 Negro Melodies for piano
• Three-fours (Valse suite) Op. 71 — a suite of 6 waltzes for piano, published 1909

Influences

• Teacher: Charles Villiers Stanford
• Composers: Antonín Dvořák, Edvard Grieg
• African-American thinkers and poets: W.E.B. Du Bois, Paul Laurence Dunbar
• Musical style: lyrical melodies, rich harmonies, conscious incorporation of African and African-American musical traditions (rhythm and folk-inspired melodies)

About the Three-fours (Valse suite) Op. 71

• Suite of six waltzes for piano — published 1909
• Valse is French for waltz: a brisk dance in triple time (3/4) that originated in the 18th century from the Austrian Ländler
• Waltz grew in prominence in the 19th century: Johann Strauss II wrote waltzes for social dancing; Chopin used the form for abstract instrumental music
• The six waltzes in Op. 71 are unrelated in key, contrasting in character, and traverse a broad emotional and technical range
• Andante is the second work in the set

Main Features of Andante

• Key: A♭ major; simple triple time; homophonic — melody in RH throughout
• Romantic style: rich harmony featuring extensive chromaticism; tender and expressive character; long and lyrical melodies
• While composed in the early 20th century, shows greater affinity with Romantic music than with distinctly 20th-century styles
• Modulations to F minor (relative minor), E♭ major (dominant), and the more distant G minor

Structure — Ternary Form with Introduction and Coda

• Introduction (bars 1–4), A♭ major: Accompaniment establishes the key under an inverted pedal point on the dominant.
• Section A¹ (bars 5–22): Bars 5–13 (A♭ major → F minor): main theme in two similar two-bar units — short RH phrase echoed by a mid-register countermelody. From bar 9 phrasing becomes more fragmented and sequential. Bars 6–9 outline a descending-fifths (circle of fifths) progression in tonic key. Passage with extensive chromaticism tonicises B♭ minor (relative of subdominant), featuring a brief tonic pedal (bar 11), concluding with imperfect cadence in the relative minor. Bars 14–22 (A♭ major): theme restated one octave higher — melodically and harmonically identical for first 7 bars, final moments return to tonic with strong perfect cadence.
• Section B (bars 23–35), E♭ major → F minor → G minor → A♭ major: Three similar phrases, all based on section A's opening gesture. Phrase 1 (bars 23–26): begins in dominant key, concludes with imperfect cadence in relative minor. Phrase 2 (27–30): mostly F minor, abruptly shifts to G minor in final bar, imperfect cadence. Phrase 3 (31–35): tonic pedal in G minor before returning to tonic in bar 34, imperfect cadence.
• Section A² (bars 36–48¹), A♭ major: First 6 bars exact restatement of bars 5–10. Bars 42–45: modified modulating sequence rapidly tonicises B♭ major, C minor, C major, D♭ major. Bars 46–47 restate material from bars 20–21 (end of A¹), returning to tonic with strong perfect cadence.
• Coda (bars 48–59), A♭ major: Two-bar unit repeated twice, rearticulating the perfect cadence. Bars 52–53 allude to the introduction. A chromatically modified plagal cadence resolves to tonic harmony in bar 56. Remaining bars restate tonic chord.

Notable Harmonic Devices

• Descending-fifths / circle-of-fifths progression: Bars 6–9 — gives harmony a strong sense of direction; tinges the sound with an early-20th-century American / proto-jazz flavour
• Inverted pedal point: Introduction — dominant note sustained in the upper voice while harmony changes below
• Countermelody: Mid-register echoing gesture used to enrich the harmony (bars 5–13); in bars 34–35, a contrary-motion countermelody interweaves a tritone substitution (enharmonically spelled A dominant 7th), a secondary dominant (B♭ dominant 7th), and an enharmonically spelled German augmented sixth — all reinforcing dominant harmony
• Tritone substitution: Bars 34–35 — an enharmonically spelled A dominant 7th (a tritone away from the E♭ dominant 7th) leads the harmony toward the return of A
• Secondary dominants: Bars 48 and 50 in the coda; and frequently throughout to create harmonic colour and direction
• Borrowed chords: Bars 49, 51, and 55 in the coda — chords borrowed from the parallel minor key
• Extended chords: B♭ dominant ninth in bars 21 and 47 — genuine extended chord (others that appear to be extended are in fact accented dissonances)
• Chromatically modified plagal cadence: Coda, bar 56 — IV–I with chromatic alterations

Note on Form

The form of this work is debated: section B is not thematically distinct, is shorter than A¹, and ends inconclusively — all suggesting rounded binary. However, the expression (especially dynamics) emphatically divides the work into three distinct sections — the strongest indicator of ternary form. The AMEB guide labels it ternary.

Romantic Style Characteristics

Contemporaries of Coleridge-Taylor

Edward Elgar (English, 1857–1934), Claude Debussy (French, 1862–1918), Frederick Delius (English, 1862–1934), Ralph Vaughan Williams (English, 1872–1958), Hubert Parry (English, 1848–1918), Charles Villiers Stanford (Irish/English, 1852–1924).

Life & Career

• French composer; younger sister of the influential teacher and composer Nadia Boulanger
• Musical prodigy from a very young age
• First woman to win the Prix de Rome composition prize (1913) — a remarkable achievement
• Life tragically cut short by illness at age 24 (1918)
• Despite limited output, notable for intense emotional expression, refined craftsmanship, and innovative harmonic language
• Reflects both Impressionist influences and a unique personal voice exploring spirituality and nature

Major Compositions

• Sacred choral pieces: Psalm 24 and Psalm 130 (Du fond de l'abîme)
• Vieille prière bouddhique (Old Buddhist Prayer) for voice and orchestra
• D'un matin de printemps — originally for violin and piano, later arranged for orchestra
• Piano: Trois morceaux (published posthumously, 1919)

Influences

• Teachers: Gabriel Fauré and Paul Vidal
• Claude Debussy — harmonic language and focus on timbre
• Her music is challenging to categorise — echoes of Romanticism are faint; shares more with later styles it foreshadows

About Cortège

• Composed July 1914, Rome — during her time following her Prix de Rome win
• Originally for piano; alternative version for violin (or flute) and piano composed the following year
• Part of triptych Trois morceaux (published posthumously, 1919); preceded by D'un vieux jardin (E major) and D'un jardin clair (B major) — both slower and more reflective
• Title literally means 'procession' — but in French this carries festive, not funereal associations; the music evokes a carnival parade

Main Features

• Tonal centre: 'in B' — key signature of B major used, but draws on B Mixolydian or B major pentatonic scale; some passages have no tonal centre
• Simple duple time; homophonic — melody mostly in RH
• Impressionist style: atmospheric character; modal harmony; whole-tone scales; pentatonic scales; parallel harmony (planing)

Structure — Loose Ternary with Introduction and Coda

• Intro (bars 1–2), B Mixolydian: Introduces accompaniment figure (alternating chords and bass notes give a sense of 'walking in the cortège') and establishes tonal centre.
• Section A¹ (bars 3–34): Bars 3–14 (B Mixolydian): three four-bar phrases — bars 3–6 introduce main theme; bars 7–10 restate but conclude on different note/chord; bars 11–14 restate transposed version, returning to tonic. Bars 15–24 (B Mixolydian → F♯ major): second segment — bars 15–18 repeat bars 3–6; bars 18–22 increase chromaticism, cadence in F♯ major; bars 23–24 bridging passage (ambiguous tonality — both A♯s and A♮s). Bars 25–34 (F♯ major → C♯ Phrygian dominant): varied restatement of opening phrase transposed to F♯; bars 29–32 move to harmonies around C♯ (primarily Phrygian dominant mode); bars 33–34 bridging passage concluding on dissonant chord.
• Section B (bars 35–46¹): Bars 35–41 (C♯ Phrygian dominant): LH introduces new two-bar phrase, repeated exactly (bars 38–39), then transposed down a whole tone (bars 40–41) with altered harmony. Bars 42–46¹ (N/A — no tonal centre): melody returns to RH; bar 42 one-bar unit (from rhythmic motive in bar 36), repeated a tone higher in bar 43 — melody largely from whole-tone scale; bars 44–45 ascending whole-tone scale, last note elides into section A².
• Section A² (bars 46–70¹), B Mixolydian: Bars 46–57: varied restatement of bars 3–14, melody one octave higher. Bars 58–70¹: bar 58 restates theme, varied from bar 60; bars 62–65 restate theme over chromatic harmony on dominant pedal; bar 66 begins as bar 62 but fragments into lengthy sequential bridging passage, returning to tonic at bar 70.
• Coda (bars 70–83), B major pentatonic: Three segments. Bars 70–74¹: lengthy descending arpeggio + four dramatic chords concluding on tonic. Bars 74–78¹: restate one octave lower with different chords. Bars 78–83: ascending pentatonic scale followed by gentle tonic chords.

Key Harmonic Devices

• Parallel harmony (planing): Chord shapes moved in parallel without regard to key signature — creates consecutive 5ths (deliberate, as used by Debussy)
• Borrowed chords: Major and minor thirds of key used simultaneously (e.g. D major triad in bar 26)
• Tritone substitution: C⁷–B cadence (bars 72–73) — dominant 7th replaced by chord a tritone away
• Whole-tone scale: Bars 44–45 (ascending whole-tone scale); bars 42–43 (melody largely derived from whole-tone scale)
• Octatonic scale: Bars 66²–69 — scale B–C♯–D–E–E♯/F–G–G♯–A♯ (alternating tones and semitones); passage transposed via sequence rising by minor third each time
• Added-note chords: Bar 70: B add6 chord; bar 78: B⁶⁹ chord (encompasses entire major pentatonic scale)
• Consecutive fifths: From bar 1, deliberately used (Debussy did likewise to evoke 'exotic' sounds)

French Terms in the Score

• Pas vite — not fast | Léger et gai — light and cheerful | Cédez — gradually becoming slower
• Faire désirer le temps suivant — build anticipation ('make listener long for what comes next')
• Presser en peu — press forward a little | Serrez — becoming faster
• Au Mouvement — return to former speed (a tempo) | Très léger, mais joyeusement — very light, but joyfully
• Plus vite et en pressant jusqu'à la fin — faster, pressing ahead to the end | Vite — lively, spirited

Impressionist Characteristics

Contemporaries of Boulanger

Claude Debussy (French, 1862–1918), Maurice Ravel (French, 1875–1937), Gabriel Fauré (French, 1845–1924), Erik Satie (French, 1866–1925), Nadia Boulanger (French, 1887–1979).

Baroque Period (c.1600–1750)

• Rise of instrumental music; emergence of functional harmony (tonal system); development of opera, oratorio, concerto, basso continuo
• Polyphonic textures (complex imitative counterpoint); driving motoric rhythms; elaborate ornamentation; terraced dynamics
• Sequences common; modulations to closely related keys (typically a 5th); pieces in minor keys often end with tierce de Picardie
• Keyboard instruments: harpsichord, clavichord. Forms: binary, ternary, ritornello, fugue, dance suite
• Composers: J.S. Bach, Handel, Telemann, Couperin, Rameau, Scarlatti, Vivaldi, Purcell

Classical Period (c.1750–1820)

• Move toward clarity and balance; homophonic textures; short balanced phrases (4- or 8-bar units); clear tonal direction
• Codification of sonata form, rondo, minuet and trio, theme and variations
• Alberti bass; diatonic harmonies; modulations to closely related keys; sparing ornamentation; clearly articulated sound
• Keyboard instrument: fortepiano. Forms: sonata, rondo, minuet and trio, theme and variations
• Composers: Haydn, Mozart, Clementi, Beethoven, Hummel, Schubert

Romantic Period (c.1820–1900)

• Individual expression, emotional intensity, new harmonic possibilities; rubato; thick textures; lyrical long phrases; wide dynamic range
• Rich chromatic harmonies (7th/9th chords); modulations by 3rds; character pieces flourished
• Keyboard instrument: pianoforte (still undergoing development). Forms: ternary, through-composed
• Composers: Mendelssohn, Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Grieg, Albéniz

Impressionist Period (c.1890–1918)

• Delicate, misty; flexible rhythms; light ethereal texture; avoids dominant–tonic cadences
• Modal, whole-tone, pentatonic scales; parallel chords; consecutive 5ths; 7th/9th chords; pedal points; unresolved dissonance
• Composers: Debussy, Ravel (both disliked the label), Delius, Boulanger

Development of the Piano

• ~1700: Bartolomeo Cristofori, Florence — invents piano (gravicembalo col piano e forte); 4–4½ octaves; hammer action with escapement
• 1780s: Range to 5½ octaves | 1790s: Range to 6 octaves | 1816: Range to 6½ octaves
• 1820s: Metal frames begin to replace wood | 1821: Double-escapement action (Sébastien Erard)
• 1822: Range reaches 7 octaves | 1826: Felt hammer coverings (Henri Pape) — replaces leather
• 1859: Overstringing (Henry Steinway Jr.) — longer strings, richer tone capable of filling concert halls

Harpsichord vs Clavichord vs Modern Piano

• Harpsichord: Strings plucked (no dynamic variation from touch); no sustaining pedal; up to 5 octaves; some had 2 manuals with stops
• Clavichord: Strings struck by brass tangent (capable of Bebung vibrato); very soft tone — only for solo use in small room; Bach's favourite
• Modern piano: Iron frame, felt hammers, 7+ octave range, sustaining pedal, overstrung bass strings, double-escapement — far more powerful and sustaining than either predecessor

Key Musical Forms

• Binary (AB): Two sections; first ends in dominant/relative major; second ends in tonic
• Rounded binary (ABA'): Binary framework but opening theme returns midway through second section — used in Bach Fantasia BWV 906
• Ternary (ABA): Three sections; B contrasting (usually different key); both A sections end in tonic — used in Coleridge-Taylor Andante and Boulanger Cortège
• Sonata form: Exposition (1st subject tonic, 2nd dominant/relative major) → Development → Recapitulation (all in tonic) — used in Haydn Hob XVI:44
• Rondo (ABAC...A): Main theme returns at least twice in tonic, separated by episodes

Key Harmonic Concepts

• Fantasia: Free, improvisatory composition with roots in improvisation — follows established forms loosely if at all; term in use since 16th century
• Basso continuo: Baroque bass line realised by a bass instrument + chordal instrument (harpsichord, organ, or lute)
• Sequence: Repetition of a musical pattern at a different pitch — extensively used in the Bach Fantasia
• Accented Ic chord: Second-inversion tonic chord resolving to V at the start or middle of a phrase (not at a cadence) — differs from 'cadential' Ic
• Inverted pedal: A sustained/repeated note in an upper voice (not the bass) — used in the Coleridge-Taylor introduction
• Descending-fifths progression: Circle-of-fifths sequence where chord roots fall a 5th — gives strong harmonic direction; used in bars 6–9 of the Coleridge-Taylor
• German augmented sixth: A chromatic chord containing major 3rd, perfect 5th, and augmented 6th above the root — leads to the dominant
• Empfindsamer Stil: 'Expressive style' — associated with C.P.E. Bach and the transition from Baroque to Classical; Bach Fantasia BWV 906 is considered an example